本日带给大家Alevel经济条记是：
第9章：Market Structure 1 市场构造1——Barriers to Entry and Exit 进入和退出的障碍
This 'topic' and the next look at the four major market structures. Barriers to entry and exit is an important topic for all these market structures, but before we press on with a look at the barriers, it is worth briefly considering what the term 'market structure' means.
The topic of Market structure is about the structure of markets. In this 'topic' and the next, we shall be looking at the four main textbook market structures: Perfect competition, Monopoly, Oligopoly and Monopolistic competition. The reason why they differ is that they have different structures. By this I mean they have, for example, different numbers of buyers and sellers, different size firms and different levels of differentiation between goods, to name just three of the characteristics that determine the behaviour of any given market.
这个 "主题 "下一个主题是关于四个紧张的市场构造。进入和退出的障碍是所有这些市场构造的一个主要话题，但在我们连续研究障碍之前，值得简要考虑一下 "市场构造 "一词的含义。
市场构造 "这一主题是关于市场构造的。在这个 "专题 "和下一个 "专题 "中，我们将研究四个紧张的教科书市场构造。完备竞争、垄断、寡头垄断和垄断竞争。它们之以是不同，是由于它们有不同的构造。我的意思是，它们有不同数量的买家和卖家，不同规模的公司和不同水平的商品之间的差异，这只是决定任何特定市场行为的三个特色。
Probably the most important characteristic of a market is the extent to which the firms in that market can erect barriers to entry and barriers to exit to stop new competitors from entering the industry. The level of competition faced by a firm is probably the main determinant of its behaviour. I felt that the issue of 'barriers' deserved its own Learn-It.
Although this Learn-It is called 'Barriers to entry and exit', many of the barriers to exit are, by their very nature, barriers to entry as well. For example, it is difficult to leave an industry, even when making short run losses, if a lot of capital is tied up in the business. The knowledge of this fact before one considers setting up a business may be enough to put one off starting in the first place! The barrier to exit has become a barrier to entry.
With this in mind, the next section is called 'The barriers' rather than 'Barriers to entry', or 'Barriers to exit'.
一个市场最主要的特色可能是该市场中的公司能够在多大程度上设置进入壁垒和退出壁垒以阻挡新的竞争者进入该行业。一个公司所面临的竞争程度可能是决定其行为的紧张成分。我认为，"壁垒 "这个问题值得自己去学习。
虽然这个学习资料被称为 "进入和退出的障碍"，但许多退出的障碍就实在质而言也是进入的障碍。例如，如果大量成本被捆绑在一个行业中，纵然在短期内涌现亏损，也很难离开这个行业。在一个人考虑建立一个企业之前，对这一事实的理解可能足以使一个人从一开始就不去创业! 退出的障碍已经成为进入的障碍。
考虑到这一点，下一节被称为 "无障碍"，而不是 "进入的障碍 "或 "退出的障碍"。
The barriers 障碍Capital costs 成本本钱As mentioned above, this can act as a barrier to exit as well as a barrier to entry. Quite simply, if you are struggling to get the funds together to start the business, then this is a 'barrier' to you entering the market. Even if you do have the capital, the worry that you will be stuck in an unprofitable situation with a lot of unrecoverable capital invested in the business may stop you entering the market in the first place. These 'unrecoverable' costs are often referred to as sunk costs. In most markets, if things go pear-shaped you can sell much of the equipment on to other firms in the industry. But costs like advertising are unrecoverable.
Obviously, the larger the industry you intend to enter, the bigger the capital (and sunk) costs and the bigger the barrier to entry (and exit).
如上所述，这可以作为退出的障碍，也可以作为进入的障碍。很大略，如果你正在努力筹集资金以启动业务，那么这便是你进入市场的一个 "障碍"。纵然你有资金，担心你会陷入无利可图的田地，并在业务中投入大量无法收回的资金，可能会阻挡你首先进入市场。这些 "无法收回的 "本钱常日被称为沉没本钱。在大多数市场中，如果情形不妙，你可以将大部分设备卖给行业中的其他公司。但像广告这样的本钱是无法收回的。
显然，你打算进入的行业越大，成本（和沉没）本钱就越大，进入（和退出）的障碍就越大。
Limit pricing 限定性定价
Existing firms may be operating a predatory pricing policy. As the title suggests, this is a policy designed to kill off competitors by reducing the price below cost price temporarily. The idea is that once the competitor is killed off, the firm can raise the price back up to the old level and steal all their customers. Limit pricing is similar to predatory pricing, except the firm in question is trying to 'limit' the entry of new firms by setting the price low enough to prevent new firms entering, but high enough to still make some sort of profit. Actions like this by incumbent firms obviously act as a barrier to entry for potential new firms.
现在有的公司可能正在实施抢夺性定价政策。如标题所示，这是一种旨在通过将价格暂时降落到本钱价格以下来扼杀竞争对手的政策。其想法是，一旦竞争对手被杀，公司可以将价格提高到原来的水平，并偷走他们所有的客户。限定性定价与抢夺性定价类似，只是有关公司试图通过将价格定得足够低以防止新公司进入，但又足够高以赚取某种利润来 "限定 "新公司的进入。在位企业的这种行为显然对潜在的新企业的进入起到了阻碍浸染。
Economies of scale 规模经济
If existing firms are large, they are probably benefiting from economies of scale. This means that their average costs are lower by virtue of their size. Bulk buying economies is a good example. Potential firms are likely to start on a smaller scale and so will find themselves at an immediate cost disadvantage.
如果现有的公司规模很大，它们可能受益于规模经济。这意味着他们的均匀本钱因其规模而降落。大宗采购经济便是一个很好的例子。潜在的公司很可能从较小的规模开始，因此会创造自己立即处于本钱劣势。
Patents 专利
A patent is something that a firm may apply for if it has just invented a genuinely original product. If the patent is granted by the government, it gives the firm legal protection to produce the product without competition for a given time period (usually a number of years). After all, what is the point of spending time and money inventing something if everyone can copy you straight away? Patents create incentives for individuals to be innovative. Obviously this creates a barrier for firms wishing to join this new market.
There are other legal barriers imposed by the government. The Post Office, for example, is the only body that is allowed to offer postal services costing less than £1. Notice that there are loads of firms offering delivery services for larger packages (like DHL and FedEx), but nobody else offers 26p stamps for small letters.
如果一个公司刚刚发明了一个真正的原创产品，就可以申请专利。如果专利被政府付与，它将为公司供应法律保护，使其在一定期间内（常日是多少年）不受竞争地生产该产品。毕竟，如果每个人都可以直接复制你的东西，那么花韶光和金钱发明的意义何在？专利为个人的创新创造了动力。显然，这为希望加入这个新市场的公司制造了一个障碍。
政府还设置了其他法律障碍。例如，邮局是唯一被许可供应价格低于1英镑的邮政做事的机构。 请把稳，有大量的公司为大型包裹供应递送做事（如DHL和FedEx），但没有其他人为小型信件供应26便士邮票。
Advertising and marketing 广告和营销
Established large firms tend to spend a fortune on advertising. Apart from the fact that they are trying to get you to buy the product in the short term, the long-term aim is to create brand loyalty. How many of you, when buying Coca-Cola from a newsagent, ask for a 'Coke' even if the only brand they sell is Pepsi? Does your mum do the vacuum cleaning or the hoovering? In both cases, the brand name is so entrenched that most people use the brand name as the generic name for the product. In the case of 'Hoover', the brand name has even turned into a verb! Having a strong brand image is very powerful for the firm in question and creates a huge barrier to entry for a potential new firm.
成熟的大公司每每在广告上花费巨资。除了他们试图让你在短期内购买产品外，长期目标是创造品牌忠实度。有多少人在从报刊亭购买适口可乐时，会哀求供应 "可乐"，纵然他们***的唯一品牌是百事可乐？你妈妈是做吸尘器还是打扫卫生的？在这两种情形下，品牌名称是如此根深蒂固，以至于大多数人将品牌名称作为产品的通用名称。就 "胡佛 "而言，该品牌名称乃至变成了一个动词。拥有一个强大的品牌形象对有关公司来说是非常强大的，并为潜在的新公司创造了巨大的进入壁垒。
The strength of vertically integrated firms 纵向一体化公司的实力
Vertical integration is a form of merger. It is where one firm merges (or takes over) another in the same industry but at a different level of production. For example, a firm that manufactures cars could merge with a firm that produces car parts, or with a steel plant. This is known as backward vertical integration. If the car manufacturing firm merged with a group of car showrooms, this would be Forward vertical integration.
In the first case, the firm would now have control over some of the raw materials. In the second, it would have control over some of the retail outlets for cars. In both cases, the firm has become more powerful, making it harder for new firms to compete. The knowledge of this extra power would put off new firms from entering the car industry.
纵向一体化是一种合并的形式。它是指一家公司吞并（或接管）同一行业的另一家公司，但生产水平不同。例如，一家生产汽车的公司可以与一家生产汽车零部件的公司合并，或者与一家钢铁厂合并。这便是所谓的后向纵向一体化。如果汽车制造公司与一群汽车展示厅合并，这将是前向垂直整合。
在第一种情形下，该公司现在对一些原材料有掌握权。在第二种情形下，它将掌握一些汽车的零售点。在这两种情形下，该公司变得更加强大，使得新公司更难竞争。对这种额外权力的认识会使新公司不敢进入汽车行业。
Experience economies 履历经济
Although it is difficult to put figures on this, established firms are likely to have a cost advantage over new firms because they have more experience of the industry in question. An established restaurant will know when it will be busy and when it will be quiet. They are less likely to order too many materials or employ too many waiters on a given night. These are the sorts of things that can only be learnt with experience.
虽然很难统计，但老牌企业很可能比新企业更有本钱上风，由于他们对干系行业有更多履历。一个成熟的餐馆会知道什么时候会很忙，什么时候会很安静。他们不太可能在一个特定的夜晚订购太多的材料或雇用太多的做事员。这些都是只有通过履历才能学到的东西。
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关于Alevel经济条记第9章：市场构造1 后续的更新操持如下：
